Who encounters violence, how, and by whom? Mapping intersectional violence against politicians in Belgium

Violence against politicians is a growing problem worldwide (IPU, 2020); yet there is significant variation in the extent to which politicians experience violence as well as the types of violence they face. Gender and politics scholars highlight the gendered nature of violence against women politicians (a.o. Krook 2020). Intersectionality theory suggests that politicians situated at the intersection of multiple grounds of discrimination (gender, race, ethnicity, age, sexuality, …) are more susceptible to facing violence and encountering distinct forms of violence (a.o. Kuperberg 2018). Empirical research looking into these dimensions, however, is still limited. Few large-scale studies exist and especially studies comparing the intersectional aspects of violence against politicians are scarce. This paper contributes to the literature by analysing whether and how gender, ethnicity, and age intersect in shaping violence against politicians in Belgium. Based on new and original survey data collected in 2022-2023 among federal, regional, and local politicians, the paper studies (1) the (intersectional) profiles of politicians facing violence, (2) the types of violence they encounter, and (3) the profiles of perpetrators. We hypothesise that politically marginalized groups not only face more violence but also distinct (sexualised and/or racialised) forms of violence. We also expect that visibility is a determining factor, causing politicians working in higher levels of government and politicians from majority parties to be targeted more. Finally, we expect that the profiles of perpetrators are different: while all politicians may face violence from ‘outsiders’ (e.g. citizens), members of marginalized groups face more violence from ‘insiders’ (e.g. other politicians). Given its political landscape, Belgium constitutes an interesting case for this research. The country has a high number of women in politics and also in terms of ethnicity and age, the political landscape has become more diverse in recent years. Additionally, since Belgium is a federal state, consisting of multiple levels of government, and has a multiparty system, it lends itself well to testing and controlling for the impact of political factors on violence against politicians.