What Explains Variation in Gendered Political Violence? A Cross-Regional Comparison

Harassment, threats, and physical attacks against politicians occur frequently and worldwide. Previous research shows that this violence is sometimes gendered, but little is known about how and why gender gaps in exposure and reactions to political violence vary between countries. In this article, we theorize that the prevalence of somatic masculinity norms conditions the frequency, form, and consequences of gendered political violence. On the country level, we suggest that the impact of these norms is moderated by men’s political overrepresentation and levels of general electoral violence via two mechanisms: the (ex-post) exclusion and the (ex-ante) attrition of women political candidates. Our empirical analysis draws on simultaneous candidate surveys (N = 2,827) in four countries (Ghana, Ireland, Norway, Uganda). Through pairwise comparisons, we show that women are more exposed to sexualized forms of violence and attacks from political insiders in countries with a high degree of men’s overrepresentation. Where levels of electoral violence are high, fewer women run for office and gender gaps in reactions to violence are smaller. This, we argue, points to the ex-ante attrition of women candidates.