Bilateral underpinnings of the European Union’s collective action - How Germany and France shape Europe’s behaviour in international negotiations

Why does the European Union (EU) adopt a firm stance in some international negotiations while yielding in others? This article posits that, even when the member states delegate significant authority to a single chief negotiator, political alignment between Germany and France remains the principal determinant of the EU’s bargaining strategies. By tracing events in two prominent case studies – the EU’s negotiations with the United Kingdom during the Brexit process, and the EU’s negotiations with the United States following the imposition of tariffs on European products in 2025 – this paper illustrates that, while Franco-German cohesion allows the EU to stand firm, Franco-German frictions force the EU to accommodate its negotiating partners. Consequently, this paper suggests focusing on Franco-German dynamics when analysing the EU’s behaviour in international negotiations.