Alternatives to European resolve

This paper explores the potential and limits of informal cooperation in European security, with a specific focus on the question of resolve. The aim is to explore the extent to which variable European countries can forge sufficient strategic and operational unity to signal credible resolve, without which no level of military capabilities can produce deterrence. The question of resolve represents a crucial test for the dense network of formal and informal ties within Europe to produce an alternative to centralised command, which is neither possible nor desirable in the European context. Can variable minilateral formats produce resolve that is credible enough to deter threats to European security? To answer this question, I examine efforts among various European formations after the Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine and especially after the recasting of US alliances and realignment with Russia at the expense of European security.