Subcultures and Processes in Radicalisation

Abstract

Proposal for ECPR Research Sessions Call Proposal full title: Subcultures and Processes in Radicalisation Proposal acronym: SPR Name of the coordinating person: Dr. Daniela I. Pisoiu Researcher Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg Beim Schlump 83 D-20144 Hamburg Telefon: +49-40-866077-45 Telefax: +49-40-866 3615 E-Mail: pisoiu@ifsh.de List of participants Participant no. Participant name Organisation Country ECPR Member 1 Dr. Daniela Pisoiu University of Hamburg Germany YES 2 Dr. Kiran Sarma NUIG Republic of Ireland NO 3 Prof. Lieven Pauwels Ghent University Belgium YES 4 Dr. Leena Malkki University of Helsinki Finnland YES 5 N.N. 6 N.N. 1.0 Introduction and Overview The processes underpinning the radicalisation of individuals from pre-radical milieus have been widely debated, yet remain under-researched. As such, it is not clear to what extent current thinking on radicalisation is evidence-based and can inform counter-terrorism initiatives. The workshop proposed in this application will enable the participants to refine and draft a grant application for a programme of research on violent radicalisation. The core outputs from the workshop are a) draft funding proposal for an ERC Synergy grant (short term) and b) an initial concept document for a programme of research that could be funded under forthcoming Horizon 2020 calls (medium term). The workshop proposed here will support our work by: a) drawing together an inter-disciplinary consortium of political scientists, psychologists, criminologists, historians and sociologists who are established experts in the area of violent radicalisation; b) Using the workshop format to ‘brainstorm’ the preliminary research concept and transform this into a coherent programme of research and c) to prepare a draft proposal for research funding to execute this programme of research. As such, our workshop meets the criteria in facilitating a ‘meeting at the earliest stage of a research project to draft a proposal for submission to a funding organisation’. 1.1 Objectives and Research Questions The guiding research question for this workshop, and our subsequent funding bids, is ‘What are the factors that drive the process of transitioning from the pre-radical, pre-criminal, milieu into active participation in terrorism?’ The detailed research questions are: • What are the different types of subcultures in the left-wing, right-wing and Islamist scenes and what are their respective dynamics? • What is the process of involvement in subcultures and how does it fit with the radicalisation process model? • How does the transition from subculture to professional organisations and cells occur? • Are groups and subcultures only relevant in some cases but not in others? • What are the differences between these transition processes and the processes that lone-actors undergo? • Is the transition from subcultures to radical professional organisations and cells recursive? • What is the role of subcultures after this transition? • What is the role of subcultures in deradicalisation and disengagement? There are two aspects justifying the importance of carrying out research on this topic. First, the fact that there is a tacit but unsystematically explored assumption that subsequent participation in terrorism and other types of violent radical activities or the joining of such groups can be somehow traceable to involvement in pre-radical subcultures. In light of the recent attack in Oslo, Sageman (2011) stated that “Terrorism emerges out of a political subculture … Just as these terrorists emerge from a neo-jihadi subculture rejecting the values of the West, so did Breivik emerge out of an Islamophobic subculture rejecting the immigration of Muslims to the West.” To date there is research output on the role of radical milieus more broadly in individual radicalisation processes, namely the fact that these milieus act as sympathisers, recruitment pool and source of logistical support for terror organisations (Malthaner and Waldmann 2012). Yet the question of the drivers for individual transitions from radical milieus to more radical and terror groups remains open, as well as the particular case of pre-radical subcultures, as opposed to other types of milieus. Second, given the developmental nature of the radicalization process, it is important to capture the role of pre-radical subcultures in order to obtain an increased understanding of the psycho-social and discursive mechanisms of gradual individual evolution towards violent radicalism and terrorism. 1.2 Location within the relevant scientific debate and theories: Radicalisation research has so far primarily focused on individuals and groups, their interaction among each other and with state policies and in particular in the last phases of the process, namely involvement in political violence. Biographical research in particular shows evidence of previous engagement in pre-radical subcultures. There is, however, no theoretical conceptualisation and analytical account of these types of pre-radical subcultures, and more importantly, no systematic exploration of the ways in which association with such subcultures might influence the transition to radicalism. Regarding evidence of previous involvement, for the case of left-wing radicalism in the 70s, Della Porta (1992) found that “those who joined the armed struggle had already been involved, often for many years, in legal radical Left organizations” (p. 261). Current right-wing radicalization research found that skinheads are a preferred pool of recruitment and foot soldiers for right-wing extremist movements (Bjørgo, 1993; Sprinzak, 1995; Dobratz and Shanks-Meile, 1997; Van Dyke and Soule, 2002; Schäfer-Vogel, 2007). Evidence of jihadi membership in non-violent Islamist organizations such as Hizb ut-Tahrir or Tabligh (Barnes, 2006; Beyler, 2006; Hoffman, 2009) or criminal organisations and gangs (Hamm, 2009) has similarly been presented. The theoretical framework to explain transition from pre-radical subcultures to radicalism is seriously underdeveloped. The mechanisms approached so far are few in numbers, descriptive in nature, insufficient to understand the dynamics, and without systematic differentiation among the several layers of organisation. The few authors marginally approaching the issue offer simplistic explanations based on the marginalisation root cause (Akdogan 2007), ideology (Hamm 2004), social networks as facilitators of joining through decreasing social costs (Della Porta 1992; Horsburgh and Jordan 2004), discursive commonalities among radical, pre-radical subcultures and the mainstream (Moghaddam and Marsella, 2004; Neumann, 2008; Vidino, 2009). The empirical overview of the radical ‘milieus’ with regard to their nature, composition and features is relatively poor and coupled with a proliferating but confused conceptualisation of the nature, composition and features of these milieus, especially in the face of new developments in the field, such as the emergence of networks instead of communities, social movements (Wiktorowicz, 2005) and leaderless resistance (Sageman, 2008, Vohryzek-Bolden, 2003). In the case of the right-wing scene, Bjørgo (2009) speaks about a variety of organisational types: political parties, formal organisations, counter-cultural youth scenes (skinhead gangs), “various forms of networks and milieus” and “groups established for the purpose of terrorist and combat activities”, with various labels: groups, networks, subcultures, scenes, milieus (p. 30). The left-wing spectrum entails a high degree of ideological and organisational variance, punctual overlaps and organisational instability (Urban, 2009). Assessments in the Islamist radicalisation literature are limited to the differentiation between the purely fundamentalist orientations, advocacy of violence and actual involvement in violence (Sageman, 2011). There appear to be examples of individuals who have evolved towards the use of political violence isolated from given communities (the lone-wolves), online, or indeed immersed in regular life, without the otherwise commonly seen mechanism of ‘conspiratorial apartments’. Finally, the term ‘subculture’ is used liberally to depict several types of communal entities – larger social groups, networks, cells –, or amorphous sets of ideas or convictions. Some of the denomination used are: ‘jihadi subculture’ referring to the actual radicals (Horsburgh and Jordan, 2004), ‘terrorist youth subculture’ (Cotter, 1999), the ‘far-right subculture’ meaning the entire right-wing movement (Barkun, 2007), or subculture of violence (Llera et al., 1993). It follows from the above that the main two research gaps in the radicalization literature with regard to pre-radical subcultures, and which this project will address are: the insufficient and unsystematic account of the role pre-radical subcultures have in Islamist, left-wing and right-wing radicalization, in particular the transition from pre-radical, to radical subcultures and terrorism, and the lack of conceptualisation and empirical account of these subcultures. The project will work on the basis of the assumption that radicalisation and terrorism are complex phenomena that must be researched through an inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary lense. The workshop participants are a multi-disciplinary team: psychologists, criminologists, political scientists, historians etc. The theoretical approach of the project is interdisciplinary and draws on five areas of research: terrorism studies, criminology, social movements, psychology and history. It will take a developmental view on the radicalisation process, whereby involvement occurs incrementally, revolves around motivational variables rather than determining factors, and in interaction with the immediate and distant social environments (Horgan, 2005; Pisoiu, 2011). The criminological approach is placed at the intersection with terrorism studies and includes the rational choice theory, social learning and subculture theories. Drawing on these theories is justified by several observations: the similarity of mechanisms in terms of involvement and stay in gangs and terrorist organisations, such as the existence of initiation rituals (Bjørgo, 2009), or the mechanism of social isolation leading to the formation of differential identities (Cohen, 1997; Horsburgh and Jordan, 2004), the concept of subculture in the meaning of autonomous normative system and social values distinguishing certain minority groups, a way of life (Bjørgo, 1993; Cohen, 1997; Gordon, 1997; Horsburgh and Jordan, 2004), the partial empirical overlap between criminal subcultures, in particular gangs, and pre-radical ones, such as in the case of skinheads, or the jihadis for instance (Lööw, 1995; Cotter, 1999; Hamm 2009) and the incidence of social learning within subcultures leading to the emergence of differential identities, norms and values as an explanation for both criminal and political violence (Wolfgang and Ferracuti, 1982; Akers and Silverman, 2004). Social movements theory will contribute with its rational choice and collective identity strands explaining transition to activism on the basis of selective incentives (McCarthy and Zald, 1997) and of resources as networks that provide new collective identities (Melucci, 1989; Mueller, 1994). 1.3 Methodology The overall work-plan for the SPR project as currently envisaged is presented in four work-packages (as illustrated in Pert Chart 1). Work Package 1 (WP1) contains elements of the overall project management of the project. This will include progress monitoring, communication with the participants, and communication with the funder. As the proposed research involves access to potentially vulnerable individuals, and may have sensitivities around confidentiality and security of data, there will be a specific sub-package of WP1 dealing with ethics. We intend to invite a security ethics partner to join our consortium at a later date. WP2 will produce a synthesis of existing evidence that relates to our research questions (WP2). We will achieve this in the first year of the project through systematic reviews of existing literature on radicalisation and transitioning and through qualitative research with former radicals and at-risk individuals. We will synthesise the evidence gathered from these studies in the form of a series of papers relating to our research questions. WP3 includes two studies that allow us to probe the validity of our synthesis of the existing evidence. First, we will complete a series of case studies of different types of politically motivated violent extremism, allowing us to probe the concordance and discordance in processes across the varying forms of terrorism. Second, informed by our earlier research, we will design and execute a series of original cross-sectional surveys of communities in different EU countries to probe the associations between predictors of radicalisation and indicators of radicalisation (e.g. ‘soft’ attitudes towards terrorism, willingness to provide funding to terrorists etc.). There is precedence for this type of research in Europe. Professor Lieven Pauwels, at Ghent University, recently completed an on-line survey of 3000 youth in Belgium focusing on right-wing extremism. Pert Chart 1: An illustration of the work packages currently envisaged for the SPR project. 1.4 Dissemination In WP4 we will maximise the impact of SPR through the transfer of knowledge to end-users. The SPR dissemination strategy reflects the EC’s Guide to Successful Communications. We will harness multiple media strategies to communicate with the end-users, the scientific community and the general public. Our channels of communicate will include: • SPR project website: The website will enable all enable all audiences to access publically available information, - e.g. on the goals of the project, the work plan, and an introduction to the consortium. We will also maintain a ‘news and events’ section that will publicise seminars and workshops, media work, recent publications in the area of radicalisation and counter-radicalisation (policies and research reports) and other notable events • Mass media: Project partners will publicise the project and its activities through participation in national, regional and local media interviews (print and broadcast). Where appropriate we will issue press releases in advance of, and following, SPR events, and invite journalists to attend these events. • Academic publications: SPR’s conceptual and empirical research will appear in leading international journals (e.g. Terrorism and Political Violence and Studies in Conflict and Terrorism), which are regularly accessed by an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary audience, including leading researchers in the field. • Attendance at conferences and seminars: Project partners will give presentations at international conferences, publicising the work of project and stimulating discussion and debate among the scientific community. In addition, we will invite academics to attend our annual seminars and close-out conference. • Networking: We will use existing networks, such as the EC’s Radicalisation Awareness Network, to communicate with end-users. 1.5 Future Planning If supported by the ECPR, this workshop will help us refine this idea into a more competitive proposal. As it stands, the primary weakness of the proposal is that it lacks utility for counter-radicalisation. A key challenge for the participants is to convert the project outputs into evidence that can be used by those who work with individuals and communities who are at-risk of radicalisation into violent extremism (e.g. the UKs Channel programme). Our intention is to use this valuable opportunity to prepare for forthcoming funding calls. In particular, we intend targeting ERC Synergy grants and Horizon 2020 SECURITY calls. 1.6 The participants A summary profile of the workshop participants is provided below. Participant 1: Daniela Pisoiu Daniela Pisoiu is a political scientist, specialised in Islamist, right-wing and left-wing radicalisation processes, she has published and presented at numerous international conferences on this topic and will be involved in a FP7 Network of Excellence project on online radicalisation, in particular as regards jihadism and right-wing extremism. She is the author of Islamist Radicalistion in Europe. An Occupational Change Process and has a forthcoming book on radical subcultures in Germany. Participant 2: Kiran Sarma He is a Chartered Psychologist with an established track record in managing applied research in community and health-care settings. He is the principle investigator on two large projects looking at risky and extreme behaviour among young people (RISK: Monitor & RISK: Profile), and is also an collaborator on a €1.2 million ICE project funded by the Irish Health Research Board. He worked for the Irish Police (An Garda Siochana) between 2000 and 2005 as a Forensic Psychologist and he is currently an Irish representative on the EC’s Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN-HEALTH) involved in building awareness of the issue of violent radicalisation among front-line services. He has published extensively in the area of violent radicalisation. Participant 3: Leena Malkki Leena Malkki is a sociologist and has also worked on the topic of terrorism from a historical perspective. Her areas of expertise are terrorism and political violence in western countries, lone wolf/autonomous cell terrorism, history of terrorism, radicalisation and counterradicalisation, disengagement from terrorism, school shootings, Finnish policies on countering radicalisation and terrorism. She has published on left-wing terrorism, historical approaches to the study of terrorism and radicalization, as well as lone-wolf terrorism. Participant 4: Lieven J.R. Pauwels Professor Dr. Lieven J.R. Pauwels is Professor of Criminology at Ghent University (Director of the Centre for the Study of Urban Crime & Delinquency & Co-director of the Research Group Social Analysis of Security). He wrote his PhD on the status of the social disorganisation perspective on adolescent offending, for which he was awarded the Willem Nagel Award 2009, a Dutch award for the best PhD written by a Dutch-speaking scholar in the fi eld of criminology between 2006-2009. He is the President of the Flemish Society of Criminology (VVC) and is especially interested in the study of the interaction between social ecological settings (especially social processes of settings one is exposed to) and individual level mechanisms that interact in the explanation of offending, fear of crime and victimization, as well as radicalisation and social media. Two further participants will be invited to attend the workshop should the application be successful. The team is currently cooperating with scholars and practitioners working on the topic of radicalisation in France, Denmark, Hungary and the Netherlands.