User and community co-production of public services first became topical in the late 1970s and early 1980s, both in private and public sectors. A second wave of interest was triggered in recent years by recognition that the outcomes which public agencies wish to achieve rely on multiple stakeholders, particularly service users and the communities in which they live. Extra salience has been given to the potential of co-production by the fiscal pressures facing governments since 2008. However, there has been little quantitative empirical research on citizen co-production behaviours. This research therefore undertook a large-sample survey in five European countries to fill this gap. This article examines an especially significant finding from this research – the major gulf between current levels of collective co-production and individual co-production. It explores the drivers of these large differences and the policy implications, if government wishes to encourage greater collective co-production, given its potential benefits.
