Democratization in Clan-Based Societies: Explaining the Mongolian Anomaly

Mongolia is a long-standing democratic anomaly—a democracy in a clan-based society—that is rarely discussed in research, even in the context of scholarship on post-communist trajectories in clan-based societies. This paper addresses the question, why did Mongolia and the Central Asian countries embark upon markedly different regime trajectories following 70 years of Soviet rule? I argue that the prospects of democracy were shaped by a complex relationship between clans-based traditional authority structures, social relations based on nomadism and the style of Soviet rule. In Mongolia, Soviet authorities carefully enforced collectivization across kin groups and provided all necessary public goods to citizens, effectively dismantling clan-based authority structures. This process unintendedly fortified nomadic social relations that enabled re-emergent elements of opposition and forces in civil society to fill the void of authority generated by the Soviet collapse and to use this counterweight to state power to push for competitive politics. In contrast, the Soviet authorities’ “divide and rule” with clans in Kyrgyzstan reproduced clans that easily took on a dominant role on the eve of the Soviet breakdown and filled the void of authority by placing themselves at the apex of political power. Even as Kyrgyzstan set onto a pathway towards democratic rule, the reproduced traditional authority structures undermined the attempts and placed Kyrgyzstan on the path to a post-communist non-democracy. In more general terms, this paper underscores the importance of the deep roots of social forces as opposed to giving primacy to political party and civil society as engines of democracy, and explains the prospects of democratization in terms of features of the regime during communist times. To this end, it proposes a refinement of Linz and Stepan’s regime typology through the addition of two new hybrids: the post-totalitarian and post-clan-based society regime and the post-totalitarian, clan-based society regime