How Many Doors to Citizenship? 'Special' and Particularistic Citizenship Norms in the EU28, 1992-2015

The objective of this contribution is to analyze the “special” norms in citizenship legislation across the EU28 states under a single framework. Citizenship legislation in Europe is arguably based on a specific “core” of norms (birth, residence, lineage, matrimony, cultural competence, respect of the laws and income) which attract most of the political and academic debate. However, even the “special” norms outside these core criteria can be regrouped in a limited number of categories, namely ethnicity, special merits, special demerits (lawful acts that cause loss of or bar from acquisition of citizenship), statelessness or refugee status, investment, and EU citizenship norms. I argue that a systematic study of these norms, and of their diffusion, variation and evolution in time can allow to understand which norms are closer to the core, almost universally recognized criteria for citizenship attribution, and which constitute exceptions. I intend first to show the internal variation to the categories that regroup “special” norms, and to analyze how common such norms were between 1992 to 2015 in EU28 countries. The categories go from highly, almost universally diffuse (ethnicity-based norms, special merits norms) to scarcely diffuse (citizenship-for-investment schemes, preferential treatments of EU citizens). Special, particularistic norms tend to increase in diffusion during the period considered, as states have rarely abandoned entirely a citizenship norm once it has been implemented. Finally, I intend to analyze the legislative changes in the period and countries considered, examining the differences in the direction of changes between EU15 and the post-2004 member states, and the links between legislation change and the parties in power. The analysis suggests that particularistic norms are not limited to Eastern European and more generally post-2004 accession states and, that while both left- and right- wing strengthen special norms more often that they weaken them, the right-wing parties do so more markedly.