Public statements of regret and remorse for former state wrongs have become increasingly popular in international r/Relations as they are considered powerful tools of reconciliation between the former perpetrator and the former victim and therefore increasingly receive attention in transitional justice research. However, the question is when and why governments publicly apologize for former misdeeds – in particular as “saying sorry” comes in many shapes and sizes (denial, excuse, apology); in different wordings, and with varying political meanings (cf. Benoit 1995). This paper makes use of the spiral model (Risse et al. 1999) in order to investigate three stages of socialization and internalization of the international apology norm into domestic settings. By analyzing Germany’s apologies for the Holocaust, the paper demonstrates that reconciliation- or apology process (paradoxically) often start with a denial of political responsibility in order to evade a loss of image or prevent domestic power costs (Adenauer; Germany in the late 1940’s) or the payment of reparations (rational strategy; logic of consequences). The more, however, international advocacy groups or other governments start to address and discuss the former misdeeds of a country publicly, the more the “perpetrator government” will move towards an excuse (Germany from the 1950’s to the 1970’s), in which “some” wrong is admitted but political responsibility denied or, alternatively, the harm justified with military necessity (see, e.g., Turkey-Armenia). This step, however, entraps the target government into a rhetorical admittance of guilt and political responsibility, which often leads to a process of genuine self-reflection and domestic discussion of the former wrongdoing (Germany in the late 1970’s; mid-1980’s). The final stage of the process is assumed to be guided by a logic of appropriateness, an internalization of the apology norm, a clear awareness of one’s own guilt, and a fundamental willingness to reconcile with the former victim by issuing a true apology (Germany from 1990).
