Polarized Hearts and Minds: Gender Differences in Affective Polarization

Affective polarization, a prominent political phenomenon, has garnered significant attention, often attributing partisan identity as its primary explanatory factor. The consequences of heightened political polarization, documented extensively, range from economic discrimination (McConnell et al., 2018) to distrust, hostility, and even political violence (Kalmoe and Mason, 2018). Understanding the causes of political polarization is therefore an important endeavor and has implications for democracy and electoral politics. We extend this framework by examining the crucial role of socio-demographic characteristics in polarization, particularly gender differences. Our research question focuses on discerning variations in affective polarization between men and women. Recent academic contributions, such as Schneider and Bos (2021), emphasize gender-based disparities in evaluating political leaders, a crucial aspect in measuring affective polarization. Moreover, studies reveal a positive correlation between the presence of women in political party caucuses and reduced levels of partisan hostility (Adams et al., 2023). Intriguingly, both male and female voters exhibit positive responses to female parliamentarians from opposing parties, suggesting that women's inclusion may foster more positive perceptions across party lines. Despite these insights, studies on gender differences in voters' affective polarization remain limited, with Ordercin and Lizotte (2019) attributing higher levels of polarization among women due to their stronger partisan identities and stances on issues like abortion. Our study aims to address this gap by investigating whether gender differences in affective polarization persist in multiparty contexts prevalent in European countries with proportional or mixed electoral systems. Using data from the TwiceAsGood project and post-election surveys in Spain, we examine a political landscape characterized by a multiparty system, first time a woman running for the presidency, the recent ongoing feminist protests since 2018, and the emergence of a far-right party. To enrich our analysis, we use both traditional measures of affective polarization, examining voter evaluations of out-parties, as well as newer measures that assess justifications for political violence. This holistic approach allows us to understand whether and how women and men in the electorate are polarized and along which dimensions in their evaluations of both parties and party leaders.