Conceptualising Lobbying and Its Regulation

As democracies grapple with social disintegration, political polarisation, and a decline in civic engagement, the practice of lobbying, characterised by communication between external actors and state institutions to influence decision-making, is experiencing substantial growth across diverse political systems. In the US alone, lobbying spending has surged by 400% since 1998, reaching an estimated $4 billion annually (OpenSecrets 2023). The European Commission’s encouragement to address its democratic gaps has led to a burgeoning presence of over 25,000 lobbyists in Brussels (The Economist 2021). Notably, even in autocratic states, lobbying is emerging as a form of political participation. Alongside this trend, political systems are increasingly regulating lobbying, seeking to shine light on who is trying to influence public officials. To better understand these developments, this paper conceptualises both lobbying and its regulation by exploring the who, what, when, where, why, and how of these complex phenomena. It serves as a foundation for the Oxford Handbook on Lobbying (forthcoming 2026) that presents critical debates on both lobbying and its regulation, offering political science, legal, public policy, and business studies analyses. Accordingly, the paper has five parts. The first section focuses on the various actors involved in lobbying, that is, "who" are lobbyists. This examination will encompass traditional perspectives, such as consultants, corporate lobbyists, and those associated with the so-called revolving door, while also introducing novel or less-explored approaches such as gendered lobbying and instances where citizens and cities engage in lobbying activities, distinct from the influence wielded by, for example, tech giants. The second shifts to the locus of lobbying - the "where" This exploration will commence by scrutinising the locus of lobbying within different national and local democratic institutions, subsequently extending to the international stage and even within autocratic political systems and eroding democracies. The third section, addressing the "when" of lobbying, responds to the growing interest in the timing aspects in studies of political decision-making, where scholars of public policy and political science examine the timing of lobbying throughout the policy cycle. Additionally, this section will shed light on less-explored stages, including implementation, evaluation, and termination. Transitioning to the fourth part, attention is devoted to a fundamental facet of lobbying: "how" it is regulated. This section will delve into the mechanisms governing lobbying practices, debating issues such as transparency, open consultations, private and self-regulation, corporate social responsibility, and the role of artificial intelligence in shaping regulatory frameworks. With these regulatory instruments in mind, the last section will explore the "why" of lobbying regulation. This includes delving into normative aspects, tracing the historical evolution of the practice, and presenting empirical evidence of its impact on the lobbying profession and its implications for the quality of democracy.