Democratic and parliamentary forms are now consolidated in a limited number of societies. Most have a Protestant and/or Catholic religious inheritance. Those which do not, such as India or Japan, are not considered here. Immigration has reduced their homogeneity as previously in North America. Management of diversity has become a concern of most. Some have adopted assimilationism, while others followed the liberal democratic paths of multiculturalism or bilingualism. Some developed anti-immigration parties hostile to these policies. Public policy aimed to accommodate or integrate immigrants by denying racism, reducing discrimination and disadvantage and tolerating difference. Variety was defined as ''cultural'' or linguistic rather than as religious. The insertion of Muslim immigrants from distinctly undemocratic societies in the Middle East, South Asia and North Africa presented serious challenges to these policies and attitudes. The democracies had difficulty in coping with new situations. At present most have only muddled and even contradictory polices.
