Mapping Cross-National Variation in Resistance to Gender Equality in Europe

Across Europe, resistance to gender equality takes diverse and sometimes surprising forms. Drawing on data from the 11th round of the European Social Survey (ESS, 2023), this paper offers one of the first systematic mappings of how such resistance varies across countries and dimensions. By visualising cross-national differences, it provides a comprehensive overview of where, and in what forms, resistance to gender equality remains most entrenched. The analysis builds on a multidimensional conceptual framework that distinguishes between three sub-dimensions of resistance: (1) denial of gender equality’s contribution to social progress, (2) denial of existing gender inequalities, and (3) resistance to state action to promote gender equality. The mapping reveals striking regional patterns that align with, but also complicate, established theoretical expectations. Consistent with research linking societal gender equality to egalitarian attitudes (Inglehart & Norris, 2003), we find a strong East–West divide. Denial of gender inequality and of gender equality’s social benefits are most pronounced in Eastern and Southeastern Europe—particularly Montenegro, Hungary, Latvia, and Lithuania—while Western and Northern European countries, including France, Germany, and Sweden, exhibit the lowest levels of denial. This pattern echoes the notion of Nordic exceptionalism (Allen, 1996; Sanandaji, 2018), where extensive institutional support for gender equality is reflected in public attitudes. However, resistance to state action follows a more complex pattern, cutting across traditional regional boundaries. Some of the most gender-egalitarian societies—such as Sweden and Norway—also display comparatively high levels of resistance to government intervention, a finding resonant with critiques of neoliberal governance and equality “fatigue” in Nordic contexts (Liinason, 2018). Overall, the results demonstrate that resistance to gender equality is multidimensional, spatially uneven, and context-dependent. By visualising these differences, the paper provides new insight into the geography of gender equality attitudes in Europe.