Political participation is seen as important to ensure equal representation. Therefore, much research focuses on why citizens do not participate, or if they do, what they vote for. In this study we focus on ethnically/racially minoritized citizens in Europe, a group known for a low turnout. What motivates them to vote and how do they relate this to representation? To understand in- and within group variation our analysis is a cross-national and intersectional comparison. Drawing on 29 focus groups with 143 participants across three countries - France, Germany, the Netherlands - we map the various ways in which voting relates to perceived representation. The results show that the relation between voting and representation is not obvious. Many citizens who vote do not feel represented, while non-voters mention diverse motives. The results show that (intersectional) privilege/disadvantage, generational dynamics, immigration history, and electoral systems influence how citizens view links between representation and participation. The results provide empirical evidence for recent theoretical advances, where voting and non-voting are seen as imperfect ways for citizens send a signal about representation. Rather than inferring one from the other, we argue that voting and representation should be studied as separate phenomena.
