Images to celebrate, images to criticize: exploring institutional and dissenting iconographies of European integration

This paper explores the visual and iconographic dimensions of European integration in response to what Rem Koolhaas called the EU’s “iconographic deficit.” This deficit—marked by the absence of a clear visual language—has been seen as a contributing factor to citizens’ weak identification with the European project. Since the erosion of the permissive consensus in the 1970s, economic performance alone has proved insufficient to legitimize the EU. As Jacques Delors famously noted, “you cannot fall in love with the Single Market.” Consequently, EU institutions have increasingly sought to cultivate symbols, images, and cultural artefacts capable of embodying Europe and fostering public attachment. Scholars have long emphasized the role of symbols and images in shaping collective identities and supporting political legitimacy (Foret 2008; Bottici 2009; Fornås 2012). Visual artefacts—such as flags, maps, monuments, or photographs—are not merely decorative; they help model a shared community in time and space, making political authority visible and emotionally resonant. They also function as mirrors of political and social change, revealing conflicts over identity and belonging. The draft Constitutional Treaty’s inclusion of the five official EU symbols exemplifies this aspiration to consolidate the EU’s political identity through established symbolic forms. This paper focuses specifically on iconographies, defined broadly as visual representations and artefacts, excluding rituals like Europe Day or the anthem while including visual symbols such as the flag and the euro. These artefacts encompass a wide range of materials: maps, photographs, murals, films, cartoons, buildings, and currency designs. In a multilingual polity lacking a unified public sphere, images carry particular communicative power because they operate non-verbally. As Bleiker argues, images not only represent politics but shape it, influencing perceptions and framing meaning. The EU is a prolific generator of images, both intentionally and unintentionally. Official photographs of summits, emblematic maps of Europe, the iconography of the euro, and the standardized visual identity of EU institutions all contribute to constructing a recognisable European presence. These images are designed to signal unity, stability, and shared values while reinforcing the EU as a legitimate political actor. However, the EU is not the only creator of images of Europe. Numerous non-institutional actors—artists, activists, cartoonists, and ordinary citizens—produce alternative or dissenting visual representations. These artefacts may support European integration, critique it, or offer ironic and subversive perspectives. Moments of crisis often intensify this visual production. The eurozone crisis, the migration crisis, and notably Brexit generated powerful visual commentaries that questioned official narratives and highlighted tensions within the European project. Beyond the EU, external actors also depict Europe in ways that reveal how the Union is perceived globally. The paper is structured in two parts. The first examines institutionally produced visuals, including official rituals, maps, symbols, and monetary imagery. The second analyzes decentralized and critical iconographies emerging from crises, protest movements, Brexit, and contexts outside EU borders. Together, these analyses show that European integration is not only a legal or economic process but also a deeply visual one, shaped through competing images that construct, challenge, and reimagine the meaning of Europe.