Like-Minded or Distancing Liberal Democrats? Exploring Congruence in Illiberal Stances among Citizens and Their Representatives

Dissensus over liberal democracy is on the rise in Europe and beyond. Illiberal stances appear increasingly widespread among citizens, while analyses of the supply side of political competition document a growing diffusion of illiberal issues related to the rule of law, checks and balances, and political and civil rights. Moreover, a growing body of experimental research shows that many citizens are willing to turn a blind eye to violations of liberal-democratic norms when voting for their preferred parties. Taken together, these findings suggest that stances on liberal democracy should empirically display a degree of alignment between voters and their representatives. Surprisingly, however, no previous study has systematically investigated this relationship. This paper addresses this gap by examining congruence in illiberal stances between citizens and political elites. It draws on the unique data structure of the REDIRECT survey, which includes parallel measures of illiberal stances among voters and representatives across eight countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Empirically, the paper first assesses the degree of homogeneity in illiberal stances within and between voters and elites, comparing this pattern to congruence in other political attitudes and beliefs. It then examines whether higher levels of congruence can be explained by ideological positioning and country-level contexts. Building on prior research, it tests whether right-wing ideology and residence in countries experiencing autocratization are associated with stronger illiberal congruence. Finally, the paper explores whether congruence in illiberal stances helps explain patterns of voting behaviour. The findings are expected to clarify whether illiberalism is confined to a narrow set of usual suspects—such as the far right—or whether illiberal stances are more broadly shared among voters and elites. More broadly, the paper sheds light on whether liberal-democratic stances generate an elective affinity between representatives and citizens or instead reveal a fuzzy pattern that points to the limited role of liberal democracy in electoral accountability.