To what extent do transnational social, religious, and ethnic movements challenge the foundations of the so-called Westphalian international order, in particular the trinity of state-nation-territory? What forms of political participation do they claim? On what grounds can such transnational forms of political participation and representation be justified? Do transnational nations pose a different challenge to normative political theory than other transnational communities? By studying the case of Roma, the paper relates the literature on diasporas to those on transnational civil society and trans-state nations, thus offering a new typology of boundary problems. The paper demonstrates that the trinity of state-nation-territory is challenged from all three directions. Trans-state, transnational and non-territorial forms of solidarity and political action are thriving. Such developments challenge state-centric liberal, multicultural and nationalist theories alike. The paper discusses five potential ways political theory may respond to such challenges.
