Who Benefits from Digital Engagement? Gender, Migration Background, and Online Political Participation in Lombardy’s Schools

Youth political participation in Europe, both electoral and non-electoral, remains deeply stratified, reflecting broader structural inequalities (Giugni & Grasso, 2022). Online Political Participation (OPP) is often portrayed as a more accessible and inclusive gateway for younger generations, with the potential to reduce participatory gaps (Cirimele et al., 2025). Yet accumulating evidence suggests that inequalities may persist even in digital contexts (Grasso & Giugni, 2022; Grasso & Smith, 2022), raising questions about who participates online and under which conditions. This study examines whether digital political participation mitigates inequalities or reproduces existing exclusions, focusing on the intersection of gender and migration background and on the school environment as an under-studied agent of political socialization. While previous research has emphasized the role of family socialization (e.g., Guglielmi & Maggini, 2025), comparatively little attention has been paid to schools and classroom contexts (Noack & Eckstein, 2023). Using data from the MAYBE project, the analysis focuses on Lombardy, a region of Northern Italy characterized by a high share of residents with a migration background (around 12%). Lombardy constitutes a most-likely case for the democratizing potential of online political participation: a highly developed and digitally connected region where, despite widespread access, social inequalities remain pronounced. The study tests three hypotheses. First, a reproduction versus democratization hypothesis assessing whether online participation reproduces existing gender and migration-based inequalities or fosters greater inclusiveness. Second, a mobilization hypothesis positing that school environments characterized by high levels of political engagement and gender-egalitarian norms enhance political efficacy and recruitment, thereby fostering participation among disadvantaged groups. Third, a demobilization hypothesis expecting within-school socioeconomic inequality to depress participation among already penalized students. Preliminary findings indicate that students with a migration background display higher levels of online political participation overall. Moreover, politically engaged school environments further increase participation only among female students with a migration background, highlighting the school environment as a relevant agent of political socialization.