Designing Linguistic Inclusion: Models and Rationales for Inclusion of Linguistic Minorities in Citizens’ Assemblies

Citizens’ assemblies are key instruments of deliberative democracy meant to implement its principles of representativeness and inclusiveness in practice. They bring together a randomly selected mini-public of the wider society, to deliberate on issues of public concern and formulate recommendations for public authorities (Curato et al., 2021; Escobar & Elstub, 2017). Representativeness of the group makeup, meaning that the composition of the assembly mirrors all relevant attributes of the general population, grants citizens’ assemblies the legitimacy of political decisions taken by a randomly selected and demographically representative group of citizens (Fishkin, 2009; Junius, 2024; Mansbridge, 1999). The inclusiveness of the process, expressed through the provision of equal access and opportunities for groups which might otherwise be marginalized, is crucial for guaranteeing democratic fairness and credibility of deliberative decision-making (Fishkin & Luskin, 2005). However, ensuring the representativeness and inclusiveness of the process presents a particular challenge in multilingual societies, where the absence of a shared language and limited opportunities for inter-group communication can hinder the development of mutual understanding and effective deliberation (Verhasselt, 2024). This paper aims to conceptualize and systematize the ways in which linguistic minorities are integrated into deliberative processes in multilingual contexts and examine the normative and pragmatic justifications behind specific inclusion strategies. The paper addresses two research questions: ‘What are the possible ways in which organizers of citizens’ assemblies in multilingual societies include the existing minorities into the assembly process?’ and ‘What normative and pragmatic considerations shape the organizers’ choice of a particular model of inclusion (or exclusion)?’. The author develops a systematic classification of models of inclusion of linguistic minorities in citizens’ assemblies and explores six recent in-depth Central and Eastern European cases, distinguishing between (1) monolingual assemblies without any consideration of linguistic minorities, (2) monolingual assemblies with varying consideration of linguistic minorities, and (3) multilingual assemblies with different group integration strategies. Moreover, drawing on 15 semi-structured interviews with organizers of citizens’ assemblies in multilingual societies, the paper discusses their motivations for implementation of a specific model of inclusion (or exclusion) of linguistic minorities. The study explores controversies related to integrating linguistic and ethnic minorities in deliberative processes in contested settings, including the historical, cultural and geopolitical circumstances leading to marginalization of specific groups in deliberative decision-making. By linking design choices to organizers’ normative and pragmatic justifications for inclusion or exclusion of linguistic minorities, the paper sheds light on the trade-offs inherent to linguistic inclusion and highlights how linguistic design can either reinforce or challenge the existing inequalities. The findings demonstrate the importance of pragmatic and political justifications for the organizers’ choice of a specific model of inclusion, especially in times of geopolitical tensions in Central and Eastern Europe.