Unveiling Online Violence Against Women in Politics: EU Political Candidates

Violence against women in politics is a pervasive phenomenon. While both women and men in politics may face violence, that directed at women takes on distinct, gendered forms. Female candidates and officeholders are often subjected to attacks that aim to shame, silence, and ultimately exclude them from the political arena. This paper examines online violence against women in politics, focusing on the X platform (formerly Twitter). We analyze tweets posted by ordinary citizens and directed at female and male candidates for Prime Minister or Head of State across twelve EU countries. The study addresses three research questions: What characterizes the online violence experienced by candidates of different genders? How frequently do female candidates face gender-based attacks? And what individual and political factors are associated with variation in this phenomenon? Drawing on an original dataset of 287,252 tweets directed at 46 candidates (17 women and 29 men), the paper contributes to comparative research on gendered political violence by identifying patterns and contextual factors shaping this troubling dynamic across Europe.