Rethinking Political Violence in Europe Through the Greek Case: Hybrid Terrorism, Fragmentation, and Crime

In recent years, terrorism and political violence in Greece have undergone significant transformations in terms of organizational structures, ideological content, and operational practices. While earlier phases of Greek terrorism were characterized by relatively coherent, hierarchical armed organizations with long-term strategic goals, contemporary manifestations of political violence appear increasingly fragmented, decentralized, and hybrid. This paper examines the evolution of terrorism and political violence in Greece through a longitudinal perspective, focusing on the transition from “classical” armed organizations of the post-authoritarian period to newer forms of low-intensity, symbolic, and hybrid political violence. Drawing on qualitative analysis of recent empirical cases—most notably the activities of the Group of Popular Fighters (OLA) and Revolutionary Self-Defence—the paper highlights the re-emergence of small-scale armed formations characterized by limited operational capacity, reduced organizational cohesion, and an emphasis on symbolic rather than mass-casualty targeting. These groups operate within a broader ecosystem of political violence that increasingly favors low-risk, low-cost tactics, such as the use of low-intensity incendiary devices, short-lived campaigns, and opportunistic actions. Such practices reflect a shift away from sustained armed struggle toward episodic and performative forms of violence aimed primarily at communication and visibility. At the same time, the paper examines the growing prevalence of violent acts carried out by individuals or loosely connected networks, often lacking a coherent ideological framework or long-term strategic vision. These acts frequently draw on hybrid and fluid narratives combining elements of anti-systemic discourse, political grievance, and personal motivations. Rather than representing ideological incoherence, this ambiguity is interpreted as a structural feature of contemporary political violence, shaped by broader social conditions of crisis, insecurity, and declining trust in political institutions. A central contribution of the paper lies in its analysis of the increasing overlap between political violence and organized crime in the Greek context. Based on court rulings, legal files, and public discourse, the study explores how shared resources, criminal practices, and informal networks blur the analytical boundaries between ideologically motivated violence and profit-driven criminal activity. This convergence does not imply a full merger of terrorism and organized crime, but rather the emergence of hybrid configurations in which political and economic motivations coexist. Theoretically, the paper proposes conceptualizing contemporary Greek terrorism as a form of hybrid low-intensity political violence. It argues that the decline of large, hierarchical armed organizations should not be understood as a retreat of political violence, but as a transformation toward fragmented, opportunistic, and symbolically charged practices that operate across the boundaries of terrorism, political activism, lone-actor violence, and criminality. By foregrounding hybridity, fragmentation, and low-intensity violence as defining features, the paper calls for a reconsideration of classical terrorism models that prioritize organizational coherence, ideological consistency, and strategic escalation. By advancing the Greek case as a critical regional example, the paper contributes to broader debates on the long-term transformation of political violence in Europe. It highlights emerging research needs concerning hybrid threats, prevention strategies, and the evolving relationship between political violence, crime, and social conflict in contemporary democratic societies.