Mapping the Demand-Side of Illiberalism through Analysis of Socio-Demographic Factors, Personality Traits and Perceived Threats: Spain in Comparative Perspective

The rise of illiberal attitudes among citizens is increasingly recognised as a significant challenge to democratic resilience. The adoption of anti-pluralist views has been attributed to various explanatory frameworks. Political socialisation theories suggest that individuals raised under authoritarian regimes may retain those values into later life. Life-cycle approaches posit that older individuals tend to prioritise security and order, thereby exhibiting stronger illiberal tendencies. Psychological predispositions—such as personality traits—have also been identified as influential, alongside contextual socio-political factors, including perceived political, cultural, and economic threats. Drawing on original survey data from five countries—Argentina, Brazil, France, Poland, and Spain (N=7,500)—this study examines the demand-side drivers of illiberalism, with a particular focus on Spain as the central case analysed in comparative perspective. We assess three sets of potential drivers: socio-demographic characteristics, psychological traits, and threat perceptions, and apply and validate the illiberalism index proposed by Zanotti and Rama (2020). The findings reveal both cross-national regularities and country-specific patterns. Older and more educated respondents tend to score lower on illiberalism, and gender is generally not a significant predictor—except in Spain, where women exhibit higher illiberal attitudes. Among psychological factors, authoritarian and securitarian orientations, along with a propensity for frustration, are positively associated with illiberalism. Perceived threats from government, inequality, and crime show limited explanatory power, while identitarian concerns—particularly perceptions of immigration as a threat to cultural identity or economic stability—emerge as a key driver of illiberal attitudes, especially in the Spanish case.