When States ‘Come Out’: Europe's Sexual Minorities and the Politics of Visibility

Why, despite similar international pressures, has socio-legal recognition of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) minorities changed so differently across states? Why are some traditionally Catholic countries leading the way on LGBT rights and why do other advanced, wealthy democracies lag behind? Such variations are not explained by differences in international pressures, the fit between domestic and international norms, modernization or low implementation costs – the traditional explanations for successful diffusion and social change. Extensive fieldwork (82 semi-structured interviews, a survey of 291 LGBT organizations, and 2 datasets on legislation and social attitudes) suggests new domestic preconditions and international pathways of diffusion. I use a mixed-method approach, combining large-n quantitative analysis with in-depth qualitative analysis of key cases, to argue that visibility is central to norm diffusion. The degree to which international pressures resonate in various states – and become internalized within them – depends on specific international channels and domestic interest groups that make political issues visible. The exchange of ideas with other countries and the extent of a state’s openness to international organizations have demonstrable effects on diffusion. Furthermore, the extent to which domestic actors are embedded in transnational networks shapes the speed and direction of diffusion. The findings thus speak to the politics of visibility and how it can accelerate or retard social change.