Labour exploitation and agency among low-wage migrants in the UK

Since 2016, labour exploitation has consistently been the most frequently reported form of exploitation of potential victims of modern slavery identified and referred to the National Referral Mechanism (NRM) in the UK. Sectors that employ low-wage workers are more susceptible to risks of exploitation, particularly seasonal workers in the agri-food sector. Prior to July 2021 when the EU settlement scheme was completed, the majority of workers in the agri-food sector were migrants from Romania and Bulgaria. This paper uses mixed methods to assess the extent to which these low-wage migrant workers faced exploitative conditions throughout their migration journey and particularly at their workplace in the UK. By drawing on structure-agency theories, behavioural models and legal empowerment theory the paper also examines what enables and deters workers from exercising agency in situations of labour exploitation. Individual agency is analysed by considering its intersection with a range of systemic factors, including the design of grievance mechanism, the role and powers of labour market actors, and supply chain governance, as well as contextual factors such as Brexit and the Covid-19 pandemic. This study is based on rich primary data collected in 2021 which includes 439 online surveys with migrant workers and 29 interviews with stakeholders such as businesses, labour authorities, migrant workers, NGOs, and unions. Brief parallels are also drawn with the challenges encountered by migrants post-EU settlement scheme, when the recruitment of workforce from Eastern Europe was replaced by a much wider geographical recruitment strategy of migrant workforce from as many as 52 countries. The paper concludes with a series of policy recommendations relevant to labour market stakeholders.