Does feminism empower women? Evaluating the impact of forth-wave feminism on political efficacy in Spain

Empowerment refers to the expansion of assets and capabilities enabling disadvantaged groups to participate in, influence, and hold accountable the institutions shaping their lives. This concept encompasses access to information, inclusion, participation, and organizational capacity (Narayan, 2007). Women's empowerment, specifically, emphasizes increasing self-worth, decision-making abilities, and the capacity to influence change (Sen et al., 2023), aligning closely with the core goals of feminism. Historically, feminism has evolved through distinct "waves," each with a unique focus: the first wave on individual emancipation, the second wave on systemic transformation and collective empowerment, and the third wave on celebrating diversity and intersectionality. The fourth wave, however, is characterized by its reliance on digital activism and its emphasis on raising awareness of oppression and aggression via platforms such as social media (Munro, 2013; Chamberlain, 2017). While digital feminism has amplified global visibility and grassroots mobilization—exemplified by movements like #MeToo—critics argue that its focus on victimhood may undermine the agency and resilience feminism traditionally sought to promote (Gill, 2016; Banet-Weiser, 2018; Rottenberg, 2018). This research addresses an empirical question arising from this debate: has the fourth wave of feminism weakened women’s empowerment? The concept of "empowerment" itself demands precise definition, as interpretations of power significantly affect policy and practice (Rowlands, 1995). Within the realm of public opinion and political behavior, empowerment is closely linked to internal political efficacy—the belief in one’s ability to engage meaningfully in the political sphere through deliberate judgments and actions. Internal political efficacy is a cornerstone of human agency and democratic participation, bridging personal motivations and values with political behaviors and interactions (Beaumont, 2010). Three primary pathways to political efficacy are widely recognized: social status, civic resources, and sociopolitical learning. Feminism, particularly within the sociopolitical learning framework, can foster political efficacy by providing skills, mobilizing individuals for action, and creating active political communities. Recent research supports the connection between feminism and political efficacy (Heger & Hoffmann, 2019), though causal links remain difficult to establish due to the absence of longitudinal data. Our study investigates the relationship between feminism, particularly in its most recent wave, and women's empowerment as measured by internal political efficacy. Using the Spanish case—a representative example of southern European countries where feminism has risen significantly in recent years —we leverage eight waves of a panel survey conducted between 2018 and 2024. Spain’s context avoids ceiling effects and provides meaningful variation in both feminism and political efficacy. Preliminary findings reveal a persistent gender gap in internal political efficacy from 2010 to 2024, though this gap has been narrowing since 2014. This trend contradicts claims of the disempowering effects of fourth-wave feminism. Furthermore, fixed-effects estimations indicate that women experiencing a surge in identification with feminism also report increased levels of internal political efficacy. These results underscore feminism’s enduring emancipatory power across its waves, reinforcing its role in advancing empowerment rather than undermining it.