The Biological Foundations of Populism: A Neurobiological and Evolutionary Perspective

The global rise to power of populist leaders over the past decade highlights the centrality of emotional appeal in shaping political movements, yet traditional political science frameworks often dismiss emotions as mere deviations from rationality. Recent advances in neuroscience and evolutionary biology, however, reveal that emotions and reason are not opposing forces but integral components of a unified decision-making system (Kahneman 2011; Damasio 2018). This theoretical contribution proposes a reframing of populism studies by integrating insights from these disciplines to address the centrality of emotions in populist mobilizations. Focusing on the “us versus them” dichotomy central to populist rhetoric (Müller 2016; Aslanidis 2020), we explore how narratives of crisis and insecurity – arising from the decline of ideological certainties and the erosion of the liberal order – trigger in-group/out-group biases rooted in the interaction between the limbic system, which governs emotional responses, and the cerebral cortex, responsible for rational deliberation (Sapolsky 2018; McDermott 2004). This neurophysiological interplay shapes the cognitive and emotional processes that make populist narratives particularly resonant during periods of uncertainty and discontent, driving group cohesion and sharpening political antagonisms. These insights help explain why populism thrives in moments of collective insecurity, where the interplay between emotion and reason drives group cohesion and sharpens political conflict (Choi e Bowls 2007; Johnson 2020). By reframing political passions as integral to rationality, we argue that populist movements can be understood as emotional responses that emerge from the interaction between evolutionary mechanisms and contemporary socio-political contexts. This perspective underscores how emotions, far from being irrational, serve as central drivers in shaping collective identities and strengthening the resonance of populist narratives. This framework tackles the epistemological challenge posed by the rational/emotional dichotomy, rejecting its artificial divide and highlighting their interconnected role in decision-making processes. By advocating for a deeper exploration of the biological and neurophysiological foundations of decision-making, this paper aims to shed new light on the enduring appeal of populist movements worldwide.