Drivers of Far-Right Violence in Europe: The Role of Movement Parties

The emergence of far-right movement parties in Europe has blurred the boundaries between protest and electoral arenas. Despite growing academic interest in far-right politics, empirical studies have predominantly focused on their electoral support, while the non-electoral and violent aspects of far-right movement parties remain broadly understudied. As hybrid and transitional actors, far-right movement parties seek success in both electoral and protest arenas. However, they often use violent repertoires of action even though violence is often considered illegitimate by the electorate. This raises a key question: What mechanism drive far-right movement parties to adopt violent tactics in the protest arena? To address this question, I use protest event data to conduct a comparative analysis of far-right mobilization strategies in 12 European countries. Building on social movement theory, this study examines the extent to which opportunity structures, grievances and resource mobilization models drive far-right violence. The findings suggest that these concepts function more effectively as complementary rather than contrasting frameworks, with indicators from all three models collectively explaining violent tactics across national settings. Far-right movement parties in different European regions respond distinctly to their political and discursive environments, while the lack of resources and the existence of cultural and institutional grievances function as complementary drivers of violence. The mainstreaming of far-right actors in the fourth wave of post-war politics has elevated these movement parties into more central political arena, underscoring the need to understand the conditions driving their violence and its impact on contemporary democracies.