Interactions of Quotas and Electoral Systems in Shaping Gendered Political Violence

This paper investigates how electoral system design and the presence of gender quotas interact to shape women candidates’ exposure to political violence. While institutional reforms have expanded women’s access to elected office, they have not eliminated the gendered risks associated with running for political power. Using original data from the Comparative Candidate Survey (CCS) on Bolivia, the study examines how different electoral arrangements—particularly the coexistence of proportional representation and single-member district contests—condition the type and intensity of violence experienced by women during campaigns. Bolivia provides an ideal setting to explore this question. Its mixed-member electoral system combines proportional representation and single-member districts under a framework of gender parity and alternation. This institutional design makes it possible to analyze how variations in electoral rules shape women’s vulnerability to symbolic, psychological, and physical forms of violence. Preliminary evidence suggests that while proportional representation races often lead to reputational and symbolic attacks, single-member district contests are more closely associated with direct, personal aggression. The study also evaluates how the enforcement of parity measures influences women’s exposure to violence and their ability to campaign freely. By situating the Bolivian case within broader comparative debates, the paper advances understanding of how formal equality mechanisms can coexist with enduring structures of exclusion and coercion in electoral politics.