Between Inclusion and Exclusion: Political Participation Among Highly Educated Second-Generation Citizens in Germany and the Netherlands

The second generation are citizens of Germany and the Netherlands who were born to immigrant parents. Among them, the highly educated are often seen as well integrated and well positioned for political participation. Yet this group also frequently reports higher perceptions of discrimination, revealing vulnerability to exclusion. Building on this phenomenon, this paper examines how navigating inclusion and exclusion shapes their experiences of citizenship, belonging, and political participation. Based on 35 semi-structured interviews with highly educated second-generation Turkish citizens in Germany and the Netherlands and informed by intersectional and transnational perspectives, the paper develops a typology identifying four pathways of participation: Locally Engaged, Dual Embedded Citizens, Engaged Minorities, and Disengaged Outsiders. Across all types, voting in one or two countries remains widespread, indicating that education sustains electoral participation. However, engagement beyond voting varies depending on how individuals experience exclusion and political belonging across contexts. The typology shows how specific combinations of gender, religion, citizenship(s), minority status, and perceived discrimination produce distinct trajectories of political participation and belonging, advancing our understanding of how immigrant-origin citizens negotiate political belonging in contemporary European democracies.