Religiosity and Anti-Democratic Attitudes in Electoral and Liberal Democracies: Why Political Context Matters and What This Means for Democratic Resilience

Modernization scholars predicted religion would diminish and be substituted by secular thoughts as societies developed. However, in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, religion has received increased attention from the public and academics. This shift has led political science to focus more on religion, especially in conflict, peace studies, and comparative politics. While scholars have explored the tension between Islam and democracy, the broader tension between religions and democracy is often overlooked. Movements linked to Christianity also foster political extremism and antidemocratic views. In theory, religion and democracy also seem in conflict: in democracies, individuals shape laws, while religion regards its laws as unchangeable. Democracy as 'Government of the people, by the people, and for the people' opposes spiritual authority beyond personal reasoning. Is it possible to observe the general tension between religion and democracy at an individual level? Is there a link between religiosity and anti-democratic attitudes and values? Do religious individuals oppose democracy? How does the political context in which these individuals live affect this? This study investigates the link between religiosity and democratic support, along with anti-democratic attitudes. Additionally, it assumes that the political context significantly influences people's democratic attitudes, with those in systems closer to the liberal democratic ideal more likely to endorse democracy. Contrary to other studies, the results indicate that although religiosity is not necessarily linked with a general rejection of democracy, it is linked with higher support for authoritarian rule, a more authoritarian notion of democracy and support for sexism and devaluation of homosexuals. Furthermore, the results show that realization of liberal democratic principles on the structural level might counter the authoritarian aspects of religiosity.