Political Cleavages Beyond Western Democracies: Varieties of Origins and Continuing Mechanisms

The study of political cleavages has traditionally focused on Western democracies, often overlooking the complex and diverse landscape of political cleavages in non-Western contexts. This paper challenges the conventional wisdom that political cleavages are either absent or unstable in non-Western democracies. Instead, it highlights both the stability and variety of these cleavages, offering a nuanced understanding that contrasts sharply with traditional Western-centric perspectives. Unlike the classic definition by Bartolini and Mair, which posits that political cleavages encompass structure, collective identity, and organization, non-Western democracies often exhibit cleavages that fulfill only some of these dimensions. This partial fulfillment is not indicative of weakness but rather reflects the unique historical, social, and political contexts of these regions. A key contribution of this paper is its examination of the origins of political cleavages in non-Western democracies, revealing significant differences compared to their Western counterparts. While Western political cleavages typically emerge from bottom-up processes driven by mass movements and domestic influences, non-Western political cleavages often arise from both bottom-up and top-down processes. These cleavages are shaped by a combination of domestic and international influences, including legacies of colonization, the impacts of the Cold War, and ongoing geopolitical dynamics. The paper draws on diverse regional examples to illustrate how historical junctures, such as colonization, democratization, and geopolitical conflicts, shape the formation and evolution of political cleavages. For instance, in East Asia and Eastern Europe, foreign relations have been a significant factor in shaping political dimensions, with Cold War legacies continuing to influence political divisions. In conclusion, this paper provides a comprehensive and comparative analysis of political cleavages in non-Western democracies. By highlighting the diverse origins and sustaining mechanisms of political cleavages, the study offers a richer understanding of global political dynamics and underscores the importance of considering historical and international contexts in the analysis of political cleavages. This research not only broadens the scope of political cleavage studies but also contributes to a more inclusive and accurate representation of political processes in non-Western democracies.