Who Wants a Representative Bureaucracy? Evidence from a Conjoint Experiment Conducted Among Citizens and Future Bureaucrats

A passively representative bureaucracy is considered a vital prerequisite to serve all socio-demographic groups equally. While active representation of group interests occurs when individual bureaucrats step in for citizen groups who share their socio-demographic backgrounds, symbolic representation leads to beneficiary administrative outcomes even without active administrative behavior. This study explores preferences for the socio-demographic composition of the public workforce among citizens and future bureaucrats. In a conjoint experiment respondents are asked to compare two candidates applying for a job in the public administration and to decide whom they hire. The candidate profiles vary with respect to a set of meritocratic characteristics (level of education, previous work experience, etc.) and characteristics are potentially discriminating (gender, physical disability, family origin). The conjoint experiment was conducted on an online sample of 600 citizens and 401 students of public administration. Empirical results suggest that respondents primarily focus on applicants' meritocratic characteristics. However, there is also robust evidence for discrimination based on non-meritocratic characteristics. Specifically, we find that citizens are reluctant to hire migrants for a public sector position, while this effect is weaker among the future bureaucrats.