Ghost Soldiers as an endemic form of corruption

Corruption tremendously undermines peace and security, particularly when the defense sector is affected, and peace operations, security forces, and defense procurement are in danger due to illegal activities. An under-researched part of these activities is the phenomenon of ghost soldiers. Ghost soldiers are generally understood as fictitious troops added to military personnel rosters by corrupt officials who collect the extra pay allocated for deceased, no longer active, or totally made-up soldiers. This type of patronage seriously threatens the security and stability of regions such as the Middle East and Africa, where the phenomenon has been detected and described despite significant funding for counterterrorism and security. In this paper, we investigate the conditions under which the phenomenon of ghost soldiers emerges and the consequences it creates. We aim to bring light to the relationship between ghost soldiers and security, mapping out the patterns and mechanisms, in particular, related to the cost of security and counterterrorism assistance that fuels the phenomenon. Based on the analysis of cases where ghost soldiers emerged, we demonstrate that when a country lacks ethical governance, transparency, accountability, and appropriate oversight of military budgets, large pockets of corrupt activities emerge, creating a perfect environment for Ghost Soldiers to thrive and jeopardizing security and stability.