Moving on to a ‘Real, True European Army’? Analysing Developments in European Defence and Security Policy

BREXIT combined with Donald Trump’s repeated attempts at destabilizing the liberal world order (including sowing doubts on the US’s commitment to NATO article 5 on collective defense), has seemingly unleashed further developments like the 2016 Bratislava summit setting up a military planning and conduct capability (MPCC) to improve crisis management structures (i.e. a military staff), in March 2017 the White Paper on the future of Europe, in September 2017 the Permanent Structured Cooperation on Security and Defence (PESCO) envisioned in the Lisbon Treaty was activated, and in autumn 2018 Emanuel Macron called for the creation for a ‘real, true European army’ backed by Angela Merkel. Officially outside the EU (and NATO) France launched the European Intervention Initiative’ (E2I or EII) in spring 2018, promoting military cooperation among its p.t. 10 members. The outbursts from president Trump show that these developments, at least in the White House, are taken seriously. The aim of this section is to analyze aspects of this increased activity within the realm of defense and security in Europe. Europe, not only the EU. This last addition is important, as there is an increased activity outside the official frame of the EU, too like the already mentioned E2I or the Nordic Defense Cooperation.